英文學術字彙探究:運用索引典與搭配詞字典幫助寫作
文 / 熊宜君 (本中心教師)
嘗試用英文寫作時,除了要有清楚的邏輯架構、合宜的文法之外,另一個關鍵要素就是字彙的運用了。在寫作的過程當中,許多同學其實有很好的構想,但由於使用的字詞有欠精準,使得表達出的語句不夠道地,或是容易讓讀者會錯意。舉例來說,依據筆者的教學經驗,一般中文學習者常常分不清楚consequence 與 outcome 的差異,有時候誤用甚至是漏掉 provide 的搭配介係詞for、to、with。若是讀者寫作時能善用索引典 (thesaurus) 與搭配詞典(collocation dictionary) 等工具書,培養語感以及對文字的敏銳度,許多困難也許就可以迎刃而解了。
首先,以 consequence 與 outcome 兩個字來說,就像許多詞彙一樣,雖然意義相近,但在很多情況下並不能直接互換。索引典,一部涵蓋詞彙之間語義關係或從屬關係的工具書,便可方便讀者查找特定單字的近義字、反義字、上位語或下位語。根據 Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus 的定義,consequence 多半指的是“a result of sth that has happened, especially a bad result”,因此中文翻譯為「後果」較為貼切。另外,常與 consequence 搭配的形容詞,如 negative,serious等,在 Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus 中,也詳細列出提供學習者參考:
“Consequences is used most frequently to talk about possible negative results of an action. It is commonly used with such words as adverse, dire, disastrous, fatal, harmful, negative, serious, tragic and unfortunate.”
此外,Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus 更附帶說明,即便 consequence 無搭配形容詞,該單字仍然意指偏負面的結果:
“Even when there is no adjective, consequences often suggests negative results: Fearing the consequences, she left the company.”
常容易與 consequence 混淆的字是 outcome,根據 Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus,outcome 通常是指 “the result of an action or process”。至於這個字應該搭配正面或負面的形容詞呢?有時候只參考索引典的例句無法判定,希望更進一步探究的讀者,可以參考搭配詞典,例如 Oxford Collocations Dictionary。由該書所列舉條目中的搭配形容詞來看,學習者便可以很清楚地歸納出 outcome 的使用原則:
- desirable, desired, favourable/favorable, good, happy, positive, satisfactory, successful
- adverse, bad, negative, poor, unfortunate, unsatisfactory
如此一來,學習者便知道 outcome 用來表達正面或負面的結果均可,寫作的時候就不會將這個字與 consequence 混淆了。
除了 consequence 和 outcome,許多讀者一定會立刻想到 result,甚至還學過 implication,那麼它們又有甚麼不同呢? 再次參考 Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus,當中就已說明 result 與 outcome 的差別:
NOTE RESULT or OUTCOME? “Result is often used to talk about things that are caused directly by sth else: Aggression is often the result of fear. Outcome is more often used to talk about what happens at the end of a process when the exact relation of cause and effect is less clear: Aggression is often the outcome of fear. Result is often used after an event to talk about what happened. Outcome is often used before an action or process to talk about what is likely to happen.”
由此可見,result 通常是指已發生、直接由某事件造成的結果,而 outcome 則多半用於指稱在預期某項行動或一段過程後,可能隨之而來的結果。試想,以下選自於 Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus 例句中的兩個近義字若互換,是否仍能表達出貼切的意思呢?
- “This book is the result of 25 years of research.”
- “These costs are payable whatever the outcome of the case.”
接下來,讀者在使用 implication 這個字之前,必須先分辨它的多個含意。根據 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,筆者在此列出學術寫作中比較常用的兩個含意:(1) a possible effect or result of an action or a decision; (2) something that is suggested or indirectly stated (= sth that is implied)。寫作時,首先應該特別留意定義1 (可能的影響、效果、結果);從該定義即可推測implication 與 result 的不同:implication 並非指研究中已經獲得的結果,而是指未來預期可能產生的結果或影響。讀者亦可更進一步查找 Cambridge Dictionaries Online,同時參照這兩個最常用的定義說明:(1) the effect that an action or decision will have on something else in the future;(2) when you seem to suggest something without saying it directly (“Implication”, 2016)。另外,有興趣的讀者也可以參考 Macmillan Collocations Dictionary,因為該書涵蓋了許多搭配詞的完整例句,幫助讀者理解如何選用搭配詞來表達定義1的意思。例如:“The potential legal implications of this approach are enormous.” 或是 “In this chapter we discuss the methodological implications of two theoretical frameworks.”
其次,若讀者想表達定義2 (推論、含意、暗指、暗示) 的概念,可參考搭配詞字典,選擇 clear, obvious 等形容詞,並搭配名詞子句來陳述推論的內容。但讀者應該留意的是,clear, obvious 或 possible 等形容詞,也可以用來描述定義1的概念 (可能的影響、效果、結果)。因此,implication 用作何種意義必須配合上下文來解讀:
- “The obvious implication was that Simon was lying.” (from Macmillan Collocations Dictionary)
=> 搭配 obvious,並結合名詞子句,implication 應為「推論、含意、暗指、暗示」之意。 - “His remark seemed to have various possible implications.” (from Oxford Collocations Dictionary)
=> 搭配 possible,並結合過去式動詞 seemed to have,implication 應為「推論、含意、暗指、暗示」之意,推測 his remark 先前可能有的各種不同解讀方式。 - “The research has far-reaching implications for medicine as a whole.” (from Oxford Collocations Dictionary)
=> 搭配 far-reaching,並結合介係詞 for,且句中的時態為現在式,應為「可能的影響、效果、結果」之意,描述此項 research 對整體醫藥領域預期有的深遠影響。
舉一反三,相信讀者現在應該可以判斷 implication 在以下例句的意義了。
- “The paper discusses the implications of our findings in relation to students’ learning.” (from Macmillan Collocations Dictionary)
=> 句中搭配現在式動詞 discuss,描述該研究的 findings 在 students’ learning 方面未來可能產生的效果。
最後,我們再來談談 provide 的搭配詞用法。由於中文「提供某人某事物」的影響,許多學習者可能誤以為 provide 和 give 的用法相同,常容易忘記搭配介係詞 for、to、with。讀者若查找線上字典 Macmillan Dictionary,就能看到清楚說明,其中詳列常見的錯誤與正確的用法:
✗ Television provides us a convenient way to get the latest information.
✓ Television provides us with a convenient way to get the latest information.
✗ She had enough money to provide him a basic school education.
✓ She had enough money to provide him with a basic school education.
- provide something for someone: “The hotel provides a playroom for children.”
- provide something to someone: “We provide legal advice and services to our clients.”
- provide someone with something: “The book signing provided him with an opportunity to meet one of his heroes.” (“Provide”, 2016)
總結來說,寫作的字彙能力並非一蹴可及,必須持之以恆努力練習,而長時間下來,訓練效果亦將會十分顯著。許多相似的單字各有各的搭配語,建議讀者可多運用索引典與搭配詞字典,觀察例句並從中加強學習。除查找以上提及的實用工具書之外,也可利用相關線上資源,如:http://www.just-the-word.com/,或可使用更精簡的搭配詞字典,如:LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations,亦可參考更高階的索引典,如:The Concise Roget’s International Thesaurus 以及 The Thinker’s Thesaurus: Sophisticated Alternatives to Common Words 等,都是非常有幫助的。如果可以加以熟習利用,必定能事半功倍。下定決心努力的讀者們,學習的成效完全是事在人為,加油了!
References
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臺大寫作教學中心電子報No. 016